Missionary Efforts of the Church in Modern Times

        Jesus said to his apostles before his glorious Ascension, “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you” (Matt 28:19-20). The Church follows Jesus’ command to spread the Gospel throughout the world. The pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature, since she carries out the mission which has begun in Christ, and is carried forward in the mission of the Holy Spirit in accordance with the work committed to her in this world by the Father for the salvation of mankind (Lumen Gentium 48).

        Prior to Vatican II, the Vatican generally adopted the stance that the Catholic religion should be regarded as the one and only true religion on earth, even to the extent of excluding all other forms of worship in the countries where Catholicism was the state religion. For example, one of the “errors” pointed by Pope Pius IX in his Syllabus of Errors is that “every man is free to embrace and profess that religion (not Catholicism) which, guided by the light of reason, he shall consider true” (Syllabus of Errors 15). If this “error” is taken literally, a man was not allowed to profess another religion than Catholicism as a true religion, i.e., there was no religious freedom not only in the Church, but in the Catholic States!

        Vatican II has significantly changed this stance. The Decree on Ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio was issued on 21 November 1964 in a bid to restore the unity of all Christians. It stipulates that men who believe in Christ and have been truly baptized in those separated Churches and Communities are in communion with the Catholic Church even though this communion is imperfect (UR 3). The Declaration on Religious Freedom, Dignitatis Humanae was issued on 7 December 1965 to declare that the human person has a right to religious freedom, which has its foundation in the very dignity of the individual. A man is bound to follow his conscience in order that he may come to God, the end and purpose of life. The exercise of religion, of its very nature, consists before all else in those internal, voluntary and free acts whereby man sets the course of his life directly toward God (DH 3). Indeed, different expressions of the Christian faith can coexist in a society and make room for different political positions, which nevertheless have in common a central set of standard values, the binding force of which simultaneously safeguards a maximum of freedom (Ratzinger 218). As such, it is infeasible and in fact inappropriate to force people to believe in the Catholic religion to the contrary of a man’s conscience. In fact, according to the Declaration on the Relation of the Church with Non-Christian Religions, Nostra Aetate, the Catholic Church rejects nothing that is true and holy in non-Christian religions, as they often reflect a ray of the Truth which enlightens all men (NA 2). This paper discusses the ways in which Vatican II’s views on religious freedom and ecumenism influence the Church’s missionary efforts and the roles that could played by the use of social media in this respect.

        Even after two centuries’ hard work, it remains a gigantic task to accomplish the Lord’s command to spread the Gospel to all the nations and peoples. About one-third of the population in the world is Christians while the total number of Catholics account for around 18% of the world’s population (Wikipedia). Moreover, in some populated countries such as China and India, the percentage of Christians in the country remains very low (less than 5%). While these places have their own non-Christian traditions and religions, it is important for Christians who belong to the minority to bear witness in Christ by example of their own lives in order for non-believers to gain a personal knowledge of God and Jesus our Savior. Christians are the salt of the earth and the light of the world (c.f. Matt 5:13-14). They should show the people among whom they live, and should converse with them, so that the non-believers may learn by sincere and patient dialogue what treasures a generous God has provided to mankind through His unfailing love (Ad Gentes 12).

        In territories where Christianity is not a mainstream religion meaning that there are plenty of opportunities for missionary work, Catholics ought to know the problems and the benefits in their apostolate which derive from the ecumenical movement. Ecumenical dialogue between Catholics and our separated brethren must proceed with love for the truth, with charity, and with humility to avoid bearing a false witness to the non-believers as if Christ has been divided. As Paul wrote to the Corinthians, we are not baptized in the name of Paul or Apollos or Cephas, but in Christ to become his followers (c.f. 1 Cor 1:12-13). Because of this reason, Catholics should collaborate and pray with other Christians so that we can apply the Gospel together especially in matters of common concern such as care for the poor and the afflicted, moral issues and social justice. In Hong Kong, the place where I live, for example, recent debates in the Hong Kong society on same-sex marriage have also triggered ecumenical dialogues on natural law, human dignity and religious freedom. When Christians of different denominations are closely connected together and with non-Christians in their life and work, Christ's disciples will be able to render to others true witness of Christ, and to work for the salvation of mankind, even where they may not be able to announce Christ fully in a formal Church setting. For Christians are not only seeking a material progress and prosperity for men, but promoting the dignity and brotherly union among all men, teaching those religious and moral truths which Christ illumined with His light. In this way, Christians are gradually opening up a fuller approach to God for the people, particularly in territories where the penetration of Christianity is still low (AG 12).

        In spreading Christ’s message to the other people, the Church can and should make use of modern technologies to make the message more pervasive. Pope John Paul II made an excellent point:

Do not be afraid of new technologies! These rank “among the marvelous things” – inter mirifica – which God has placed at our disposal to discover, to use and to make known the truth, also the truth about our dignity and about our destiny as his children, heirs of his eternal Kingdom (The Rapid Development).

Both the Vatican and the particular Churches have already made good use social media platforms and tools such as Youtube, Facebook, Twitter and mobile apps to enable more widespread dissemination of God’s Word. Nevertheless, adopting social media by the Church hierarchy alone is not enough. As we have already seen, the laity also has a key role to play in spreading the Gospel and in evangelizing and sanctifying men. Nowadays, Christians are closely connected to their non-Christian relatives and friends of their social and professional circles in the cyber space through the social media. A Twitter message of the Pope can ripple to and reach millions of non-believers by the sharing of Catholics with their Facebook and Twitter friends. The Pope App also provides a mobile platform for sharing the Pope’s daily activities and messages to people anytime and anywhere. Personally, I make use of this app to keep a close watch of the Pope’s activities and share his messages and thoughts with my Facebook friends, many of whom are non-Christians, whenever I find them useful to my evangelization work. In this manner, the laity can help the hierarchy of the Church to spread the faith of Christ very widely and effectively among the non-believers with whom they live or have professional connections – an obligation which is all the more urgent, because very many men can hear of Christ and of the Gospel only by means of the laity who are their neighbors. Through the laity’s active participation in spreading the Gospel using the social media, they can fulfill a special mission of proclaiming the Gospel and communicating Christian teachings, so as to add vigor to the nascent Church (AG 21).

        When a non-believer begins to open his heart to receive the message of God, he must establish a personal relationship with Him in Christ. It is of paramount importance that religious freedom is in place for people to accept faith. The Church strictly forbids forcing anyone to embrace the faith, or alluring or enticing people by worrisome wiles. By the same token, she also strongly insists on this right, that no one be frightened away from the faith by unjust vexations on the part of others (AG 13). In Hong Kong, although citizens enjoy full religious freedom in worship, this does not necessarily imply that they are totally immune with issues on religious freedom. Accepting faith requires the progressive change of a man’s conscience and values into Christ’s. The convert’s motives of becoming a Christian can sometimes be a challenge in conveying and accepting faith. In Hong Kong, for example, some catechumens join catechism classes because they want their children to be baptized in order to get a better chance to be admitted to good Catholic schools under the local education system. In accord with the Church's ancient custom, this motive should be purified (AG 13). Catechists would therefore have the responsibility to teach catechumens, regardless of their original motives, on the Church doctrines and beliefs, and most importantly, enabling them to live a Christian life and become true disciples of Christ their Teacher. Much similar to the Samaritans who believed in Jesus when they told the Samaritan woman, “It is no longer because of what you said that we believe, for we have heard for ourselves that this is truly the Savior of the world” (John 4:42), the converts’ motives should be purified so that on the day they (and their children) receive the sacraments of Christian initiation, they can profess that Jesus is their Savior and appreciate that the gift of becoming God’s children and a member of the Body of Christ is much more valuable than sending their children to a famous Catholic school. They should also come to realize that one of the primary purposes of studying in a Catholic school is to allow their children to receive eternal Christian values but not only temporal material gains. In this way, they can continue to develop their own and their children’s Christian life after Baptism and contribute voluntarily to missionary work in the spread of the Gospel and in the building up of the Church (AG 14).

        The ecumenical spirit should be nurtured in the neophytes, who should take into account that the brethren who believe in Christ are Christ's disciples, reborn in Baptism, sharers with the People of God in very many good things. As already mentioned above, Catholics should cooperate in a brotherly spirit with our separated brethren, making before other people a common profession of faith in God and in Jesus Christ, and cooperating in social and in technical projects as well as in cultural and religious ones, so that our lives together may become a more convincing witness for Christ among the non-believers (AG 15). After the neophytes have gathered into the People of God, it is important for all Christians to understand that we belong in one Community which is “a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people” (1 Peter 2:9). In order to plant the Church and to make the Christian community grow, the ministry of priests should be duly fostered. In priestly training, students should be educated in the ecumenical spirit, and prepared for fraternal dialogue with other Christians and non-Christians. They should also learn to mediate between the traditions and religion of their homeland on the one hand and the Christian religion on the other. Paul said, “I have become all things to all people, that I might by all means save some” (1 Cor 9:22). For this purpose, priests should learn the history, aim, and method of the Church's missionary activity, and the special social, economic, and cultural conditions of their own people, so that they can better engage in ecumenical dialogues and collaborative projects with other Christians and non-Christians (AG 16).

        Again, the social media can play an important role in priestly work. For example, priests and students receiving priestly training can make effective use the Facebook to feature topics on papal and diocesan news, collaborative projects with other Christian communities, daily Biblical reflections, Saints of the day, catechisms as well as social subjects of local concern. Being pastors and teachers of faith, their social media posts should reveal the necessary virtues of priests: goodness of heart, sincerity, strength and constancy of mind, zealous pursuit of justice, affability, etc. (Presbyterorum Ordinis 3). In this way, lay Catholics who are Facebook friends of the priest can help to disseminate Christ message to their personal circle of friends by sharing on social media. Furthermore, sharing knowledge on religious subjects using the social media is not a monopoly of priests. Likewise, permanent deacons, the religious, catechists, professors in seminaries and universities, and theology students can make use of the social media to engage in ecumenical dialogues and in spreading Christian faith. As a theology student, I maintain a blog (vwklam.blogspot.hk) to share my doctrinal learnings and spiritual experiences with others through the blog and Facebook.

        Besides the missionary activities in the particular Churches, heavy emphasis has been placed on planning missionary activity at the universal Church level because it is the greatest and holiest task of the Church. The Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples is set up to direct and coordinate, throughout the world, both missionary work itself and missionary cooperation. In coordination with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, it aims at bringing about and directing fraternal cooperation as well as harmonious living with missionary undertaking of other Christian communities (AG 29). Through the dialogues between the competent experts from different Churches and Communities, everyone gains a truer knowledge and fairer appreciation of the teaching and religious life of the Churches and Communities (UR 4). When comparing doctrines with one another, Catholic theologians should remember that in Catholic doctrine there exists a "hierarchy" of truths, since they vary in their relation to the fundamental Christian faith. Thus the way will be opened by which through fraternal rivalry all will be stirred to a deeper understanding and a clearer presentation of the unfathomable riches of Christ (UR 11). Let’s continue to pray and strive at all levels of the Church in gradually overcoming the obstacles to perfect ecclesiastical communion, so that all Christians will at last, in a common celebration of the Eucharist, be gathered into the one and only Church in that unity which Christ bestowed on His Church from the beginning (UR 4). Together we will strengthen our missionary efforts in spreading the Gospel and building the Kingdom of God on earth.

Bibliography

"Christianity by Country." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_by_country>.

Coogan, Michael D. The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha. N.p.: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

Pope John Paul II. "Apostolic Letter The Rapid Development - Inter Mirifica." Vatican, n.d. Web. 1 June 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_20050124_il-rapido-sviluppo_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Declaration on Religious Freedom - Dignitatis Humanae." Vatican, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions - Nostra Aetate." Vatican, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Decree concerning the Pastoral Office of Bishops - Christus Dominus." Vatican, n.d. Web. 01 June 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus-dominus_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Decree on Ecumenism - Unitatis Redintegratio." Vatican, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_unitatis-redintegratio_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Decree on Ministry and the Life Priests - Presbyterorum Ordinis." Vatican, n.d. Web. 01 June 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651207_presbyterorum-ordinis_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Decree on the Mission Activity of the Church - Ad Gentes." Vatican, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651207_ad-gentes_en.html>.

Pope Paul VI. "Dogmatic Constitution on the Church - Lumen Gentium." Vatican, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html>.

Pope Pius IX. "The Syllabus of Errors Condemned by Pius IX." Vatican, n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius09/p9syll.htm>.

"Rallying in Prayer for Hong Kong." Sunday Examiner. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 July 2014. <http://sundayex.catholic.org.hk/node/1423>.

Ratzinger, Joseph. Church, Ecumenism, and Politics: New Endeavors in Ecclesiology. San Francisco: Ignatius, 2008. Print.

The Orthodox Church from A Catholic Perspective

        The schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church is conventionally dated 1054 when Cardinal Humbert and two legates of the pope placed a bull of excommunication upon the altar of the Church of Holy Wisdom at Constantinople (Ware 43), which divided the then majority of Christians into the former under the pope and the latter in the Byzantine Empire. The Orthodox Church latter expanded to other places in the world. At present, the Orthodox Church is composed of four “ancient” patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem which occupy a specific position for historical reasons. The head of these patriarchates bears the title of patriarch, with the Patriarch of Constantinople known as the “Ecumenical” Patriarch who ranks first in honor in the Orthodox Church (i.e., “first among equals”).[1] There are also ten other fully independent autocephalous churches with the biggest in Russia.[2] Some of the heads of these churches also bear the title of patriarch while others are either called archbishop or metropolitan. In addition, there are several “autonomous” churches which are self-governing in most respects but are not fully independent. Finally, there is a large Orthodox “diaspora” in Europe, North and South America, and Australia which are jurisdictionally belonging to one of the patriarchates or autocephalous churches, with some of them moving towards self-governance (Ware 5-6).

        The Orthodox Church is essentially a family of self-governing churches which are bound together not under a centralized hierarchy, but solely by the bond of unity in the faith and communion in the sacraments. Each patriarchate or autocephalous church, while independent, is in full agreement with the rest on all matters of doctrine and in full sacramental communion (Ware 7). 

        The unity of faith in the Orthodox Church can be summed up in the word “Tradition”, which means the rich inheritance received in the past, and their belief in transmitting this inheritance unimpaired to the future. Among the various components of Tradition, of the most importance are the Bible, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and the doctrinal definitions of the seven Ecumenical Councils,[3] which are considered something absolute and permanent. The other parts of the Tradition include writings of the Fathers, definitions by local councils, canons, service books and liturgical actions, holy icons, etc., which are not as equally important as the first three (Ware 196). Nevertheless, Tradition in the Orthodox Church is considered not static but dynamic. While inwardly unchangeable (for God does not change), it is constantly assuming new forms under the living discovery of the Holy Spirit, which supplement the old without changing them (Ware 198). Moreover, to an Orthodox Christian, doctrine cannot be understood unless it is prayed and lived. Faith and love, theology and life, are inseparable (Ware 206).

        The unity between Christ and His Church is effected above all through the sacraments. Of particular importance are Baptism where the new Christian is buried and raised with Christ; and the Eucharist where members of Christ’s Body, the Church, receive His Body in the sacrament, thereby creating unity of the Church. The other five sacraments,[4] though of lesser importance, are also a source of spiritual grace received through an outward visible sign (Ware 274-275).

        The Orthodox Church believes in the “one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church”, which is part of the Creed. As mentioned above, members of the Orthodox Church are united by the same faith and the sacrament of Communion (the Eucharist). Hughes Oliphant Old also said that “the Church really is so much as the actual celebration of the sacrament of Communion” (Old and Russell 233); while Letty M. Russell considered “the Church as a community of Christ, bought with a price, where everyone is welcome” (Old and Russell 241). While certainly there are similarities between the Orthodox way and the Old/Russell descriptions of the “one” Church, the difference lies primarily with the understanding of “communion” under the “one” Church. Orthodoxy rejects the concept of “inter-communion” between separated Christian bodies, and admits no form of sacramental fellowship short of full communion (Ware 310). From another perspective, the Orthodox Church considers itself to constitute the one true Church, even though it does not preclude other non-Orthodox Christians to possibly belong to the Church through an “invisible” bond (Ware 307).

        Orthodoxy teaches that every Christian, created in God’s image, must aim to “become god”, to attain theosis or “deification” (Ware 230). The process of deification should begin in the present life and not wait to the Last Day. Go to the church; receive sacraments regularly; pray to God in spirit and in truth; read the Gospel; and follow the commandments are ways for Christians to become god (Ware 236). Basically, Orthodoxy not only believes in an ideal, invisible and heavenly Church, but also the fact that this “ideal Church” exists visibly on earth as a concrete reality. This does not mean that Christians on earth do not sin and are perfect, but the Church on earth is a thing of heaven and cannot sin. There is no separation between the visible and invisible, between the Church militant and the Church triumphant, for the two make up a single and continuous reality, of which Christ is the head. This Church is the icon of the Trinity, the Body of Christ, and the fullness of the Spirit (Ware 242-243). Such an Orthodoxy understanding of the “holiness” of the Church, though in some way similar to the Old/Russell’s description in relation to the sanctification of the Church by the Holy Spirit, presents a significant difference on the latter’s view of the gradual transformation of the Church into the holy Church that God intends. According to Old/Russell, the visible Church on earth should cultivate humility and must strive for holiness, as none in this life can claim to have attained it (Old and Russell 238). Moreover, in Russell’s opinion, the intention of holiness extends far beyond the Church itself, for it is part of God’s purpose in mending creation by weaving creation together in a bond of love and connection with the margin of society (Old and Russell 245). And that we are living in the hope that one day (i.e., not at present) we shall be the Church that God intends (Old and Russell 254).

        As for the catholic mark in the Orthodox context, it basically refers to the unity of the orthodox faith in its family of sister churches headed by individual patriarchs, archbishops or metropolitans. Despite decentralized in structure, the separated communities of the Orthodox Church can be integrated into Orthodoxy without compromising their internal autonomy. Orthodoxy desires unity in diversity, not uniformity; harmony in freedom, not absorption; with all sharing the same faith and sacraments (Ware 309). On the other hand, besides referring to the orthodoxy of faith in Christ, which essentially means “the Word truly preached and the sacraments rightly administered” in the Protestant world, the understanding of catholicity for Old/Russell also refers to the universality of Christ’s presence in the whole world. And in interpreting the orthodoxy of faith, Old/Russell is not suggesting that the right doctrine is to be defined by those who rule over a particular community, but on the responsibility of churches in all parts of the world to live out a story of faith that witnesses to God’s love for the world. In other words, emphasis is put on the “right practice” than the “right belief” of the communities of the faithful as they seek to be connected to the world around them (Old and Russell 246). Having said that, the firm belief of the Orthodox Church that man, in both flesh and spirit, is created in the image of God (Louth 219) draws it closer to Russell’s point that the concern of the Church today is Christ’s presence among the poor, marginalized and outcast (which is universal) and stressing the importance of the Church as a sign of justice, since all men regardless of whether they are rich or poor, influential or unimportant, clever or idiotic, are made in His image.

        Orthodoxy insists upon the hierarchical structure of the Church, upon the apostolic succession, the episcopate, and the priesthood (Ware 239). Each local church is constituted by the faithful, gathered around their bishop and celebrating the Eucharist. The universal Orthodox Church is constituted by the communion of the heads of the local churches, i.e., the bishops, with one another, again by the celebration of the Eucharist (Ware 245). Obviously, the understanding of apostolicity of Old/Russell in the Protestant world is very different. The apostolic witness is understood in terms of the quality of life of those who continue to live out the biblical story of Christ and the apostles in their own time, rather than the passing on of ordination or commissioning of the apostles through each generation of leadership. According to Russell, the Church’s apostolic mark is the sign of participation in God’s mission: traditioning, sending, and liberating action in the world (Old and Russell 246), particularly among the underprivileged.

        Despite that the bishop of the Orthodox Church is the divinely appointed teacher of faith, the guardian of the faith is not the episcopate alone, but the whole people of God, i.e., bishops, clergy and laity together. In other words, all the people are stewards of the truth, but it is the bishop’s particular office to proclaim it. According to Orthodoxy, “infallibility” of the Church belongs to the whole Church, not just the episcopate in isolation (Ware 250). When this is compared to the Roman Catholic’s perspective, the role of the Church’s infallibility, as Roch Kereszty suggests, is to maintain the virginity of the Church to ensure that the integrity of the Church’s faith can never be fully separated from her immaculate, spotless holiness. According to Kereszty, it is the Marian character of the Church, i.e., resembling Mary in her faith in and love of God, to enable the Church to move ahead on her journey to holiness. The Magisterium, on the other hand, is an indispensable but not central truth of Catholic ecclesiology. It only serves as a necessary temporary means to protect and safeguard the virgin Church against adultery and corruption (Kereszty 389).

        Clearly the Orthodox Church also honors the Blessed Virgin Mary as the most exalted among God’s creatures. She is the Mother of God, Ever-Virgin and All-Holy (Ware 257). Certainly Mary serves as a perfect role model for Orthodox Christians to follow as well as a source of intercession in their process of deification. In this regard, the Marian character or the “virginity” of the Church is relevant to Orthodoxy as and when her members strive to safeguard the orthodox faith of the Church in resemblance to the Mother of God. Despite the existence in differences between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church on the understanding of Church authority, particularly on the pope’s primacy over the Church as the Vicar of Christ, the precedence of the Marian character of the Church over her Petrine character (i.e., the hierarchical authority of the Church) is basically in agreement between the two in respect of the Church’s infallibility against error and corruption. This perhaps can draw us closer to full communion one day. Of course it needs the prayerful support of the whole Church, which ultimately is always the inspiration of any hope of unity (Ratzinger 89).

Bibliography

Coogan, Michael D. The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha. N.p.: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

Kereszty, Roch. "The Infallibility of the Church: a Marian Mystery". Communio: International Catholic Review 38 (Fall 2011): 374-390.

Louth, Andrew. Introducing Eastern Orthodox Theology. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Kindle file.

Old, Hughes Oliphant and Russell, Letty M. “Why Bother with Church? The Church and Its Worship”. In Essentials of Christian Theology edited by William C. Placher. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox, 2003: 221-255.

Ratzinger, Joseph. Church, Ecumenism, and Politics: New Endeavors in Ecclesiology. San Francisco: Ignatius, 2008. Print.

Ware, Timothy. The Orthodox Church: Timothy Ware. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963. Kindle file.

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[1] Before the schism, the pope ranked first in honor.

[2] These are Russia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Georgia, Cyprus, Greece, Poland, Albania, and Czech Lands and Slovakia.

[3] These Ecumenical Councils coincides with the first seven Ecumenical Councils of the Roman Catholic Church.

[4] The seven sacraments of the Orthodox Church are largely the same as those of the Roman Catholic Church.

The Easter Vigil: my personal experience

        The Easter Vigil is the most solemn liturgy in the Liturgical Year, highlighted by the baptism of the elects (i.e., those who are to be baptized on this sacred night). There are four parts of the Easter Vigil. Part 1: The Service of the Light; Part 2: The Liturgy of the Word; Part 3: The Liturgy of Baptism; and Part 4: The Liturgy of the Eucharist. I attend the Easter Vigil Mass every year since my own baptism over 30 years ago. This short essay briefly describes the liturgy of the Easter Vigil Mass, my personal experience during the celebration of the Mass and how it draws me closer to the Church community.

        When “The Service of the Light (Part 1)” commences, all the lights inside the Church are put out. A fire is prepared outside the Church. The priest begins with a short prayer, “Father, We share in the light of your glory through your Son, the light of the world. Make this new fire U holy, and inflame us with new hope. Purify our minds by this Easter celebration and bring us one day to the feast of eternal light.” Immediately, he draws the congregation’s attention to the Son of God, our Savior, who is the Light of the World. It also reminds the baptism elects the Gospel they heard in the Rite of Second Scrutiny – that on this sacred night they are the man who is born blind. The priest then lights the Easter Candle carried by the deacon. He traces the Greek letter alpha above the cross, the letter omega below, and the numerals of the current year between the arms of the cross; and inserts five grains of incense in the candle. By this act, he reminds us that the eternal Son of God becomes a man; He dies on the cross for us and has now risen in glory. At this juncture, the priest and the congregation gathered outside the Church begin the procession. The lights are still off and the deacon lifts the Easter Candle three times at the entrance, at the middle and before the altar of the Church, each time singing “Christ our Light”, and all answer “Thanks be to God”. After singing the second time, the acolytes will help light up all the candles except for the baptism elects who do not yet have their own candle – they are still in darkness but Christ’s lights are already around them – all others including me in the Church are lighted up by Jesus. Then, the deacon sings the Exsultet, a solemn hymn in praise of the risen Christ – God begins the re-creation of his world by transforming the corpse of Jesus into the nucleus of a new creation. Our mortal bodies will rise like Jesus one day. This concludes Part 1.

        “The Liturgy of the Word (Part 2)” features nine readings, seven from the Old Testament and two from the New Testament (the epistle and gospel). Before the readings, the priest appeals to all to listen attentively to the word of God so as to recall how He saved His people throughout history, and in the fullness of time, sent His only begotten Son as our Savior. The first reading reminds us that God is our creator, and He makes man in His own image. The second reading reminds us that God has made His promise through Abraham, our father of faith, and He fulfills His promise through the death and resurrection of His only begotten Son. The third reading reminds us that God has saved His chosen people from slavery of the Egyptians; and us, His new chosen people from the slavery of sins through baptism. This reading bears a special meaning to the baptism elects. The fourth reading reminds us that God is always merciful on us, and He will fulfill His promise. We should trust Him. The fifth reading reminds us that God’s salvation is offered to all – including us sinners and the elects who are longing to be baptized. The sixth reading reminds us that God is the fountain of wisdom. The seventh reading, the final Old Testament reading, reminds us that we need to have a new heart and a new spirit in order to be God’s people. At the end of each reading, we will meditate on the words by the singing of a responsorial psalm, to be followed by a silent pause, and then summarized by the celebrant’s prayer. After the seventh reading, the altar candles are lighted, the bells are rung and the Gloria is sung for the first time since the commencement of the Lenten Season (except on Holy Thursday and solemnities during Lent). We are filled with joy in praising God with the Angels in Heaven. Before the Gospel, the Letter of St. Paul to the Romans is read. All of us have died to sin and should begin living a new life in Christ. The Gospel is preceded by a very solemn Alleluia to be sung three times. And the Gospel is about the risen Lord, He is alive! “Let the risen Jesus enter your life, welcome him as a friend, with trust: he is life! If following him seems difficult, don’t be afraid, trust him, be confident that he is close to you, he is with you and he will give you the peace you are looking for and the strength to live as he would have you do.” (Homily on 2013 Easter Vigil, Pope Francis). The homily is to capture the tremendous mysteries being celebrated on this most sacred night and elaborate on how they relate to us.

        The Liturgy of Baptism (Part 3) is the climax of the sacred night. The priest goes with the ministers to the baptismal font. The baptism elects are called forward and presented by their godparents. All facing the baptismal font, the priest invites us to pray for the baptism elects in conjunction with the saints in heaven by singing the Litany led by the cantor. After the Litany, the priest blesses the water, citing God’s almighty deeds through the water over the ages; and by water and the Holy Spirit, we may be cleansed from sin and rise to a new born. What follow are the renunciation of sin and profession of faith, the fundamental of our beliefs, by the baptism elects and then by the faithful. The elects receive baptism one by one in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. All attending are full of joy and thanks to God. We welcome the new comers to our family. They are no long called baptism elects but the newborns in Christ. Tearful eyes of joy can be seen everywhere in the Church. After baptism, the godparents clothe the newly baptized with the white baptismal garment and present a lighted candle to them. The newly baptized will have to wear their garments every day during the Easter Octave Masses, remove them on the Second Easter Sunday and wear them again at the their own funerals, as a sign that their souls are as clean as a white cloth. The candles remind them to always keep the flame of faith alive in their hearts. At this point, they receive the Light as did the rest of the congregation during the Service of the Light. The priest then sprinkles the congregation with baptismal water to signify that the Lord has given all of us a new birth by water. After the celebration of baptism, the newly baptized will receive the sacrament of confirmation. The priest lays hands on the whole group and makes a sign of the cross with chrism on the foreheads of those receiving confirmation one by one. Through confirmation, the neophytes receive the Holy Spirit who will strengthen them to become the witness of Christ to all nations on earth. Immediately, they represent us to say the general intercessions.

       The Liturgy of the Eucharist (Part 4) starts with the offering of gifts by the neophytes. In the Eucharistic Prayer, the special interpolations for “Christian Initiation: Baptism” are to be used. After saying the Lord’s Prayer – the first time the neophytes are “qualified” to call God the Father “Our Father”, they will have to prepare themselves to receive the Holy Communion. In this sacred liturgy, the faithful receive the Eucharist under two kinds – body and blood. The neophytes will be invited to receive Holy Communion before others. They are now in full communion with Christ for the first time. Also importantly, they are now part of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church and become fully united with us in Christ. Together we will spread God’s word to the rest of the world. The Easter Vigil Mass ends soon after Holy Communion but our actions as the witness of Christ will last until the end of our lives.

        To me, the Easter Vigil Mass is certainly the most important liturgy of the year. It is the climax of the Easter Triduum through which we experience the death and resurrection of the Lord, and the joy of having new blood injected into the Church. As a catechist, I am most comforted that God has finally guided my “students” to receive the Sacraments of Initiation. Easter is always the season of joy, faith and hope. Hallelujah!

The "Hidden" God in the Servant Songs

The first reading of the Mass today (Palm Sunday, 13 April 2014) is the "Third Servant Song" of Isaiah (Isa 50:4-7). The downfall of Jerusalem is seen as part of YHWH’s divine plan. He has not listened to the weeping and mourning of the Jewish people and destroyed them through the hands of the Babylonians for their transgressions. “Truly, you are a God who hides himself, O God of Israel, the Savior” (Isa 45:15). Would their enemies be punished? What is the message of the downfall of Jerusalem for Israel and the other nations? While there was a strong belief that YHWH would turn His face back to the Jewish people, would Israel play a role in the divine plan of YHWH in respect of His dominion over all the nations? The Servant Songs of Second Isaiah addresses these questions.

The first Servant Song (Isa 42:1-4) depicts that the Lord will put His spirit upon his chosen servant; and through him justice will be brought forth to the nations. The Servant, plausibly referring to Israel, would open the eyes of the blind and enable the other nations to see YHWH. Israel’s experience of punishment and restoration as well as the downfall of its enemies (the Babylonians) thus becomes the means through which the nations can recognize the Lord’s sovereignty in the world. 

The Second Servant Song (Isa 49:1-6) depicts that the Servant is given a dual role to restore Israel and as a light to the nations. Despite that Isa 49:3 identifies explicitly Israel as the Servant, it is also apparent that the Servant is given the task to “raise up the tribes of Jacob and to restore the survivors of Israel” (Isa 49:6). Perhaps, this can be understood as the ideal Israel being the Servant who will serve as the light to other nations so that the salvation of the Lord can reach out the ends of the earth.

The Third Servant Song (50:4-9), i.e., the first reading today, depicts the role of the prophet and the word "servant" is not used explicitly in the biblical passage. The Lord has given the prophet the tongue of a teacher. While God will support and help him, obedience to God nevertheless entails suffering. “I gave my back to those who struck me, and my cheeks to those who pulled out the beard; I did not hide my face from insult and spitting” (Isa 50:6).

The Fourth Servant Song (52:13-53:12) is the longest and most famous among the four. It brings out the idea of vicarious suffering, i.e. the sufferings of one person or people to atone for the sins of another. It creates a meaning for the suffering of Israel and Judah: by obeying the divine plan of the Lord, Israel suffers on behalf of the other nations and makes the other nations know that there is only one God, YHWH, the Creator of heaven and earth. “He was wounded for our transgressions, crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the punishment that made us whole, and by his bruises we are healed” (Isa 53:5). It is the first time a biblical passage significantly brings out a positive understanding on suffering. It is through a similar understanding that Jesus becomes the savior of all peoples through his suffering and death on the cross. “He bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors” (Isa 53:12).

Ezekiel’s dry bones and Jesus’ raising Lazarus from the dead

Today’s (6 April 2014) first reading on Ezekiel’s dry bones (Ezek 37:12-14) and Gospel on the raising of Lazarus (Jn 11:1-45) are related but the latter is a much further and deeper development of the former.

The prophecy of Ezekiel’s dry bones starts with a vision of a valley of bones of dead people. Ezekiel prophesied that the bones would come together, filled with flesh, then covered by skin, and finally breath would come to them and the people would return to life. Apparently, this is related to the resurrection of individuals back to life. However, it could not be the case as the theology of individual resurrection first appeared in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) at the time of the composition of the book of Daniel during the Maccabean Revolt (167-164 BCE), which is much later than the time of composition of the passage on dry bones.

A more likely interpretation of the biblical passage is that Ezekiel uses the vision of resurrection more metaphorically. He did not suggest resurrection of individuals, but Israel as a whole would be restored (“these bones are the whole house of Israel” (Ezek 37:11)). This interpretation is reinforced in the symbolic action following the vision, in which Ezekiel wrote on a stick: “I am about to take the stick of Joseph (which is in the hand of Ephraim) and the tribes of Israel associated with it; and I will put the stick of Judah upon it, and make them one stick, in order that they may be one in my hand” (Ezek 37:19). So the combined stick is the whole of Israel and not referring to individual Israelites. And the earlier vision of dry bones is thus related to the restoration of the whole of Israel.

The prophecy goes further to say that God would gather all His people of the whole Israel from all the nations where they have gone and bring them to their own land. There would be one king from the Davidic line to rule over them and no longer be two kingdoms. And as the restoration was complete, “My dwelling place shall be with them; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people. Then the nations shall know that I the Lord sanctify Israel, when my sanctuary is among them forevermore” (Ezek 37:27-28).

In today’s Gospel, Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead. Apparently, he is the anointed king (Messiah) from the Davidic line to fulfil God’s promise for someone to rule over the whole of Israel. However, I think the Biblical passage contains an even deeper meaning than Jesus being Christ (Messiah). While all the four Gospels portray Jesus as the Messiah and the Son of God, what is unique in the Gospel of John to the Synoptic Gospels is its focus put on the divinity of Jesus who is pre-existent with the Father. It marks a high point in early Christology.

In the Gospel, after Jesus said that he is the resurrection and the life (Jn 11:25), Martha’s immediate response seemed to be forthcoming, “Yes, Lord, I believe that you are the Messiah, the Son of God, the one coming into the world” (Jn 11:27). However, did she really believe that “Jesus is the resurrection and the life”? What kind of power does “the Messiah, the Son of God” have? Is “the Son of God” just a messenger of God like a prophet in the Old Testament? You may notice in the Gospel that twice Jesus was “greatly disturbed” (Jn 11:33, 38). Of course, we can interpret it as Jesus was sorry for the death of his friend Lazarus or sorry for Martha and Mary who lost their brother Lazarus. But perhaps Jesus was disturbed because he saw them and other Jews weeping, and more importantly their disbelief in his almighty power of God. And perhaps their understanding of the titles “Messiah” and “Son of God” was not what Jesus had expected.

Jesus ordered Lazarus to come out from the tomb and immediately he came out with his hands and feet still bound with strips of cloth! Can you remember this scene in another place of the Gospel of John? It is in Jesus’ own resurrection with the cloth that had been on Jesus’ head and the linen wrappings on his body rolled up in the tomb by themselves (Jn 20:7). John, Jesus’ beloved disciple, saw and believed (Jn 20:8). He is the first true believer according to the Gospel of John. A week later, the resurrected Jesus appeared to his apostles, including Thomas. Let’s look at the response of Thomas, “My Lord and my God!” (Jn 20:28) This is the true and ultimate confession of faith. This is the correct understanding of “Messiah” and “Son of God”. Simply put, Jesus is God!

Bibliography

Coogan, Michael D. The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with Apocrypha. N.p.: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

Creation stories in Gensis

        The first reading of today (9 March 2014) is a creation story of Genesis. There are two distinct creation accounts in the book of Genesis. The first account, Gen 1:1-2:3, is a priestly account of creation. “God” is the creator. The second account, Gen 2:4-3:24 is from a Yahwist source. “YHWH” is the creator. This short paper compares and contrasts the two creation stories.

        In the priestly account of creation, there is an elaborated description of God’s creation of everything in the universe. Through a series of chronological creations, He made everything from nothing in “six days”. And everything that He made is good. The climax of God’s creation is the creation of human being, which was created after the creation of all other things. God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness … So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them” (Gen 1:26-27). Human being is created in God’s image and thus a statue of the deity on earth, different from all other creations. God blessed and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply; and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over … every living thing that moves upon the earth” (Gen 1:28). Clearly, mankind is given the responsibility to continue existence through sexual differentiation and designated as the ruler of God’s other creations on earth. God is very pleased with everything that He has created and to make it perfect, God finished the work and rested on the seventh day.

        The Yahwist source of creation, unlike the priestly account, makes no elaboration on God’s creation of the heavenly and earthly objects. After a short introduction, the Yahwist creation account puts focus on the Garden of Eden. Nevertheless, the highlight of creation is also on human being, i.e., same as the Priestly source. Again, mankind is different from the other things created by God, it was through God’s breath into his nostrils to animate the dust and make man a living being. God also gave man a partner, woman who is “his bones and flesh”, and they should become one flesh and multiply. Similar to the priestly account, God also made other creatures under man’s custody. The notable difference is the existence of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, whose fruit man shall not eat or touch, or otherwise he shall die. It sets the scene on human sin and suffering.

        By their free will, mankind chose to fall into temptation of the serpent’s words and eat the fruits of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil so that they might be like God. The consequences of sin are sufferings. The Yahwist source of creation contains several etiologies to explain why the things are the way they are. These etiologies echo the earlier creation stories of both the Priestly and Yahwist accounts. For example, man suddenly knew he was naked and became embarrassed – a sharp contrast with the situation in the priestly account – sexual desire is no longer as pure and sacred as it was originated. Man needed to work and sweat to live regardless of God’s putting all things under his control. Woman had to bear the pain on childbirth despite that it is a gift of God’s continuation of mankind. Man and woman are no longer partners and mutual helpers as the latter became subordinate to the former. The perfect order of things was disturbed, the crafty serpent was cursed so was the ground which would be filled with thorns and thistles. Most serious of all, death came to the earth, “you are dust, and to dust you shall return” (Gen 3:19). 

        In the Hebrew Bible, God’s creative power does not stop with the creation accounts in Genesis. It is the Israelite’s experience that through YHWH’s supreme power, a sinful world can be recreated and restored to a perfect world. The early story of Noah is an example. The description in Isaiah 65:17-25 on the prophecy of a new heaven and a new earth is another. “For I am about to create new heavens and a new earth; the former things shall not be remembered or come to mind … I am about to create Jerusalem as a joy, and its people as a delight … no more shall the sound of weeping be heard in it; or the cry of distress …” It resembles the orderly creation of God of the Garden in Eden where man shall enjoy the work of their hands and eat their produce; woman shall not suffer the pain for childbirth; and mankind shall live peacefully in a paradise with different animals, save for the serpent, like that in Genesis, shall be punished as “its food shall be dust”. The only exception is the mortality of man though he was expected to live a much longer life. It is not surprising to be so as resurrection from the dead is not yet a common Jewish belief at the time of Second Isaiah. In any event, the recreated world can be taken as the stage upon which God’s redemptive act to save His people.

The Canon of the New Testament

        The Canon of the New Testament comprises the four Gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the Acts of the Apostles, the 13 Pauline Epistles, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistles of other Apostles, and the Book of Revelation. The recognition of the canonical status of several books in the New Testament is a long and gradual process. During the process, the occurrence of issues and heretics in the early Church, the citation from certain books by the early Church Fathers in their writings, and the public reading of Christian documents in Church services of divine worship had a profound effect on the selection of books for inclusion into the Canon. The influence of early Church Fathers also explains why the development of Canon differed between the West and the East and some other books outside today’s Canon enjoyed temporary and local authority. This paper summarizes the book “The Canon of the New Testament” written by Bruce M. Metzger, which provides an analysis on the various factors leading to the finalization of the Canon.

        The canonization process can be traced back to the “early Apostolic Fathers” who had personal knowledge of some of the apostles, but were not the apostles themselves. Their writings span the period from about 95 CE to 150 CE. These writings seldom make express citations from the New Testament (Metzger 39-40). The Epistle of Clement of Rome, written in around 95-96 CE, contains extensive quotations from the Old Testament. It seems that Clement might have knowledge on several Pauline Epistles but it is unsure on whether he had access to the Synoptic Gospels as he urged his readers to “remember the words of the Lord Jesus” and there are no exact parallels between his work and the Gospels. (40-43).

        Ignatius, the second bishop of Antioch, wrote seven epistles, which demonstrate great originality. The quotations in the epistles are few in number, brief in content and made primarily from memory. Nonetheless, one can still observe certain parallels between his epistles and several Pauline Epistles, and plausibly also Hebrews and 1 Peter. It is also possible that Ignatius was acquainted with the Gospels of Matthew and John (43-49).   Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, had made the most quotations and reminiscences from the New Testament in his epistle among the early Apostolic Fathers. There are about 100 from the New Testament with only a dozen from the Old Testament. These include at least eight Pauline Epistles, the Epistle to the Hebrews, 1 Peter and 1 John. He also cited sayings of Jesus that can be found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. His extensive citations from the New Testament displayed respect for these apostolic writings which were lacking in other writings of his contemporaries (e.g., Ignatius) (59-63).

        One of the most famous books produced in the early Church was the Shepherd of Hermas, which was frequently quoted and for a time regarded as inspired. The book is characterized by its high moral value and had served as a textbook for early catechumens. Despite that no quotation is made from either the Old or New Testament, there are reminiscences from the Gospel of Matthew and John, and the Epistles of Ephesus and James (63-67). The various writings of the early Apostolic Fathers show that despite their knowledge on many of the New Testament books and epistles, they did not regard them as “Scriptures” and there is no conception of the duty of exact quotation from these books as they were yet in the full sense “canonical”. Nevertheless, there is an already implicit authority of such books, particularly in the words of Jesus, which would require to be preserved in a set of Christian writings (and not just oral transmissions as advocated by Papias[1]) so as to inspire confidence among the believers (72-73).

        Several issues in the early Church had bearings on ascertaining more exactly which books are authoritative in matters of faith and life. One of the major religious movements during the early Church period is Gnosticism, which is a syncretistic religion and philosophy that flourished for about four centuries alongside early Christianity[2]. While the Gnostics claimed that they were Christians and recognized some of the books adopted by the Church, they also had a number of “apocryphal” Gospels, such as the Gospel of Thomas and Gospel of Peter, and other texts in which the apostles report what the Lord had secretly communicated to them, particularly during the period between His resurrection and Ascension into heaven[3]. To counter the development of Gnosticism, the Church Fathers attacked the heresies and in doing so, helped to ascertain more clearly the books and epistles which conveyed the true teaching of the Lord, while rejecting those false sacred books. In this way, the early Church scrutinized those books which were in line with the expression of its faith for inclusion into the Canon (75-90).

        Another development which is of significance during the early Church period is Marcion, who was a respected member of the Christian community in the middle of the second century, but was later excommunicated because of his extreme views in the total rejection of the Old Testament[4]. To counter Marcion’s teaching, the Church began to consider more seriously the full set of books and epistles that conveyed truly the Word. One common criterion used was whether the book is in connection with one particular apostle[5]. The four Gospels recording the deeds and words of Christ formed the core and “opening collection” of the New Testament. The rest could be judged in light of this opening collection. In this regard, the Marcion’s heresy had accelerated the process of fixing the Canon of the New Testament (91-99).

        While the Marcion development had prompted the Church to recognize the full breath of authoritative writings, yet another development was Montanism that broke out in the second half of the second century, which claimed to be a Christian religion of the Holy Spirit marked by ecstatic outbursts. The Montanism development resulted in reactions from the Church which eventually cut off Montanists from communion. Nevertheless, the development also triggered deeper thoughts on whether and which books and epistles of an apocalyptic nature, including the Apocalypse, should be included in the Canon. As a result, the Church took the first step toward the adoption of a closed canon of Scripture (99-106).

        After the era of the early Apostolic Fathers, the four Gospels and the Pauline Epistles were widely accepted by the Church as authoritative Christian Scriptures. They were generally recognized as suitable to be read in public worships. By the close of the second century CE, lists began to be drawn up of these authoritative books (191). Among them the two most prominent are the Muratorian Canon which classified books under four different categories based on the level acceptance by the Church; and the Classification of the Church historian Eusebius who classified books into canonical (recognized) books, canonical (disputed) books, uncanonical (spurious) books and uncanonical (fictions of heretics) books (205). Interestingly enough, Eusebius included all the 27 books of the New Testament as canonical books (22 recognized and five disputed) and put the Apocalypse under two separate categories (canonical (recognized) and uncanonical (spurious)) to acknowledge the fact of the extravagant use of the book by the Montanists resulting in its rejection by some Christians. Eusebius did not name it the canon but a “catalogue” (Brown, Fitzmyer, Murphy 1035). Nonetheless, the closing of the Canon of the Hebrew Bible by the Jews in the second century, consciously or unconsciously, provided a model to prompt the exclusive selection of sacred Christian books on Jesus which were authoritative and divine (Souter 149).

        The process of development and closing of this “New Testament Canon” differs between the Eastern and Western churches. In the East, there was considerable doubt concerning the authority of the most of the Catholic Epistles. For example, Clement of Alexandria (150-215 CE), a representative figure of the Eastern Church, cited extensively from the books of the New Testament except Philemon, James, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John (131). Origen, another authoritative figure of the East in the third century, regarded the canon of the four Gospels as closed, and accepted the 14 Pauline Epistles (including Hebrew), Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, Jude and Revelation, but expressed reservation on James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John (141). The situation remained until Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria wrote an Easter Letter in 367 CE to declare that all the 27 books of the New Testament were fountains of salvation and only in these alone the teaching of godliness was proclaimed. It marks the first time that the scope of the New Testament is declared to be exactly the 27 books accepted today as canonical (210-212). Yet, as discussed below, not all the churches in the East readily accepted the opinion of Athanasius.

        The churches of Eastern Syria composed the “Diatessaron” in the second half of the second century CE, in which the four Gospels were woven together into a single Gospel (114). It was in widespread use in Syria until the early 5^th century. After then, the four Gospels were “revived”, and together with the Acts, the Pauline Epistles, Epistle of the Hebrew and the three longer Catholic Epistles (James, 1 Peter and 1 John), formed 22 writings of the Syrian New Testament (Peshitta), which is still in use today as the official lectionary of the Syrian Orthodox Church and the Chaldean Syrian Church. The four shorter Catholic Epistles (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John and Jude) and the Revelation are excluded (220). For the Armenian Church, while its New Testament contains all the 27 canonical books, an apocryphal Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians[6] is included in the appendix. In the Coptic Church, although the Epistles of Clement are outside the Canon, they may nevertheless be read. As for the Ethiopian Church, there is a “wider canon” which includes 35 books[7], i.e., eight additional books on top of the 27 canonical books in the New Testament (218-228).

        Unlike the East, the Latin Church generally felt that there was a need for a sharp delineation with regard to the Canon (229). Since the middle of the second century CE, various Christian writers of the West, notably Justin Martyr, Hippolytus, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian of Carthage quoted from the books of the New Testament and regarded them as Scriptures. In Irenaeus’ work “Against the Heresies”, he had a closed canon of four Gospels; he also put the Pauline Epistles on par with the Gospels, though the canon for the epistles was not yet closed. For the apocalypses, he had the Apocalypse of John and the Shepherd of Hermas[8] in his canon. Irenaeus may be the first to use the title “New Testament” of a collection of books (Lienhard 27). Two men in the West, Jerome and Augustine, call for special remark in their contribution to closing the Canon. Jerome is famous for his revision of the competing Latin translations of the New Testament. He delivered the Gospels to Pope Damasus in 384 CE. Jerome’s New Testament contained the 27 books that we currently use, which generally became the books accepted by the Western Church. Nevertheless, he occasionally cast doubts on a few books, for example, in the case of 2 and 3 John, Jerome reported that they “are said to be the work of John the presbyter” (and not John the apostle). He also considered the Epistle of Barnabas[9] “almost if not quite” a New Testament book and the Shepherd of Hermas a useful book that many ancient writers quote from it as authority. Nonetheless, they were not included in the Latin Vulgate (234-236).

        Augustine’s influence upon the Western Church was even greater than that of Jerome. It was Augustine who, in three provincial synods in Hippo (393 CE), Carthage (397 CE and 419 CE), said that, “Besides the canonical Scriptures, nothing shall be read in the church under the name of the divine Scriptures”. He followed with the enumeration of the canonical Scriptures including all the 27 New Testament books[10], which has become the divine word throughout the Western Church (236-238). From then on, the Canon of the Western Church was more or less fixed except for the presence of the Epistle of Paul to the Laodiceans[11] in some manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate. It was not until the Council of the Florence (1439-43 CE) that the Pope cast his opinion of the Canon. For the New Testament, it was confirmed to be exactly the same 27 canonical books. One century later, due to the disrupting influences of opinions about the Scriptures expressed by Protestant Reformers, Pope Paul III convened the Council of Trent to consider moral and administrative reforms required in the Roman Catholic Church. On 8 April 1546, the Council issued a decree to the effect that the Canon of the Bible in our present form is a matter of faith:

“… following the example of the orthodox Fathers receives and venerates all the books of the Old and New Testament … and also the traditions pertaining to faith and conduct … with an equal sense of devotion and reverence … If, however, anyone does not receive these books in their entirety, with all their parts … as sacred and canonical, and knowingly and deliberately rejects the aforesaid traditions, let him be Anathema”.

This dogmatic proclamation at the Council of Trent essentially ended disputes about the Canon in the Roman Catholic Church (239-247). Since then, the Church has undoubtedly acknowledged the 27 sacred books in the New Testament as the inspired word of God, having a regulating value for faith and morals (Brown, Fitzmyer, Murphy 1035).

Bibliography

Brown, Raymond Edward. An Introduction to the New Testament. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2007. Print (on the bibliography at the end of Chapter 1).

Brown, Raymond Edward., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. Print.

Metzger, Bruce M. The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford: Clarendon, 1987. Print.

Lienhard, Joseph T. The Bible, the Church, and Authority: The Canon of the Christian Bible in History and Theology. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1995. Print.

Souter, Alexander. The Text and Canon of the New Testament. London: Duckworth, 1954. Print.

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[1] Papias is a representative figure of the early oral traditions. According to tradition, he had heard the preaching of John the apostle and was a friend of Polycarp.

[2] Its teaching is on the realization of Gnosis for the salvation of souls from their temporarily imprisoned physical bodies, so that the souls may return to God.

[3] These apocryphal gospels, despite preserving scraps of independent tradition, are inferior theologically to the four canonical Gospels and may even constitute a doctrinal danger (Brown, Fritmyer, Murphy 1044).

[4] According to Marcion’s teaching, only the Gospel according to Luke and ten Pauline Epistles could be accepted as authoritative. Even then, parts of these books and epistles, e.g., the first four chapters of Luke and some portions concerning the Jews and Old Testaments were removed by Marcion.

[5] The canonicity of Hebrew and Revelation was debated preciously because it was doubted whether they were written by Paul and John respectively (Brown, Fitzmyer, Murphy 1044).

[6] The Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians is part of the composite Acts of Paul, which is also an apocryphal that makes arbitrary use of the canonical Acts and the Pauline Epistles in a legendary manner (Metzger 174-176).

[7] The four Gospels, Acts, the seven Catholic Epistles, the fourteen Epistles of Paul (including Hebrew), the Book of Revelation, Sindos (four sections), Clement, The Book of the Covenant (two sections) and Didascalia.

[8] The Shepherd of Hermas was used as Scripture by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen. The Muratorian Canon classified it as a work that might be read but not proclaimed as Scripture in church (Metzger 188).

[9] The Epistle of Barnabas was for a time on the fringe of the Canon. Clement of Alexandria wrote a commentary on it and Origen called it “catholic”, a term he used for 1 Peter and 1 John. It stands after the New Testament in the forth-century codex Sinaiticus of the Greek Bible (Metzger 188).

[10] The order of the New Testament books is the Gospels, Acts, Pauline Epistles (including Hebrew), 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3 John, James, Jude and the Revelation.

[11] The Epistle of the Laodiceans is a patchwork of phrases and sentences plagiarized from the canonical Pauline Epistles, particularly from Philippians (Metzger 183).